General William J. Donovan reviews OSS Operational Group members in Bethesda, Maryland, prior to their departure for China in 1945. Photo: Office of Strategic Services Society.
We face an enemy who believes one of his chief weapons is that none but he will employ terror. But we will turn terror against him – or we will cease to exist.” — William J. Donovan, Director Office of Strategic Services. 1942.
The Office of Strategic Services (OSS) was the first centralized intelligence agency in the United States and conducted espionage, sabotage, propaganda and covert operations in the various theaters of World War II. It was established by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in June 1942.
When World War II broke out in Europe in 1939, U.S. intelligence operations were divided among nearly a dozen federal agencies that were often suspicious bureaucratic rivals accustomed to competing for appropriations in tight peacetime budgets, President Roosevelt saw the need for a centralized intelligence agency.
The OSS played a major role in winning the war by providing vital intelligence, conducting covert operations, and supporting resistance movements in enemy-occupied territories. The OSS recruited some of the most remarkable and talented people from various backgrounds and professions, including authors, artists, actors, athletes, scientists, lawyers, and even a future Supreme Court justice. These “glorious amateurs” of the OSS made significant contributions to the war effort and went on to achieve great things in their post-war careers.
The OSS was headed by William J. Donovan, a highly decorated World War I veteran and a prominent lawyer, who was also known as “Wild Bill”. Donovan was a prominent figure in American history who served as a soldier, lawyer, diplomat and intelligence chief. He was born in Buffalo, New York, in 1883 and graduated from Columbia University with a law degree. He joined the New York National Guard in 1912 and fought in World War I, earning the Congressional Medal of Honor, the Distinguished Service Cross and other decorations for his bravery and leadership. He became a federal prosecutor and assistant attorney general in the 1920s and maintained his political connections and international contacts in the 1930s.
In 1941, Donovan was appointed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt as the Coordinator of Information, the precursor to the OSS, which he headed from 1942 to 1945. The OSS was placed under the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS), but Donovan reported directly to the President.
Donovan advocated for a permanent peacetime intelligence service, but he did not take part in the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), which was established in 1947. He is regarded as the founding father of the CIA and a statue of him stands in its headquarters. He served as the ambassador to Thailand from 1953 to 1954 and died in Washington, D.C., in 1959.
Branches of the OSS
The OSS was organized into several branches that were tasked with performing different functions. such as research and analysis, covert operations, counterintelligence, and technical development. The main branches of the OSS included the Research and Analysis (R&A) Branch, the Morale Operations (MO) Branch, the Operational Groups (OG) Branch, the Secret Intelligence (SI) Branch, the Special Operations (SO) Branch, the Counterintelligence (X-2) Branch, the Communications (Commo) Branch, the Field Photographic (FP) Branch, and the Research and Development (R&D) Branch.
The Research and Analysis Branch collected and evaluated information from various sources and produced reports on topics such as the Allied bombing campaign, the occupation of Germany, and the economic and political situation of the Axis powers.
The Morale Operations Branch conducted psychological warfare against the enemy by creating and disseminating propaganda materials, such as leaflets, radio broadcasts, newspapers, and forged documents. The branch aimed to undermine the morale and loyalty of the Axis soldiers and civilians, and to encourage resistance and defection. Donovan believed that psychological factors were as important as physical ones in warfare.
The Operational Groups Branch were small teams of specially trained commandos who carried out sabotage, guerrilla warfare, and reconnaissance missions behind enemy lines. They often worked with local resistance groups and wore uniforms of the countries they operated in.
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The Secret Intelligence Branch recruited and ran agents who gathered information on the enemy’s plans, movements, and capabilities. The branch also established networks of informants and safe houses in occupied territories.
The Special Operations Branch supported the Operational Groups and other Allied forces by providing weapons, equipment, transportation, and communication. The branch also organized and executed special missions, such as such as guerrilla warfare, sabotage, demolition, raids, ambushes, and rescue missions. It formed and trained special operations groups that fought with resistance groups in various theaters of war.
The Maritime Unit Branch trained and deployed agents for underwater operations, such as infiltrating enemy harbors, planting explosives on ships, and collecting intelligence from coastal areas.
The Counterintelligence Branch was responsible for counterintelligence and counterespionage activities. The branch identified and neutralized enemy spies, double agents, and saboteurs. It also conducted deception operations to mislead the enemy about Allied intentions and capabilities.
The Communications Branch was responsible for recruiting and training radio operators, both military and civilian, who could operate behind enemy lines or in remote areas. The branch also developed radios and communication devices that were tailored to specific assignments, such as miniature transmitters, suitcase radios, and clandestine codes and ciphers. It supported espionage activities, sabotage operations, psychological warfare, and post-war planning conducted by other OSS branches in various theaters of war. Some of the radio operators were trained in parachute jumping, as it was the primary method of infiltration.
The Field Photographic Branch was responsible for collecting and analyzing photographic intelligence from various sources, such as aerial reconnaissance, resistance groups, and captured enemy materials. The branch also produced propaganda films and documentaries to support the Allied war effort. The Field Photographic Branch played a vital role in providing information and insights on enemy activities, locations, and capabilities.
The Research and Development Branch was responsible for creating and testing various devices and weapons for espionage and sabotage missions. The branch was led by Dr. Stanley Lovell, who was nicknamed “Professor Moriarty” by OSS Director William Donovan. The branch also collaborated with British and Canadian scientists on projects such as the Norden bombsight and the proximity fuse.
OSS Training
OSS training was extensive and encompassed a wide range of skills and techniques. The OSS training program was influenced by the British Special Operations Executive (SOE) and Secret Intelligence Service (SIS), which had been conducting similar activities in Europe since 1940.
The OSS training program was divided into several phases and locations. The first phase was a basic four-week course that covered the fundamentals of intelligence work, such as security, cover, communication, observation, and report writing. The course was initially held at Camp X in Canada, where some American instructors also received training from the British. Later, the course was moved to various sites in the United States, such as Area B in Maryland and Area F in Virginia.
The second phase was a specialized course that focused on the specific branch or function of the OSS that the trainee was assigned to. For example, the Special Operations Branch trained its operatives in paramilitary skills, such as demolition, infiltration, exfiltration, guerrilla warfare, and hand-to-hand combat. The Operational Groups Branch trained its teams in similar skills, but with more emphasis on teamwork and coordination. The Secret Intelligence Branch trained its spies in clandestine techniques, such as photography, lock picking, disguise, forgery, and interrogation. The Counterintelligence Branch trained its operatives in detecting and neutralizing enemy agents and networks. The Morale Operations Branch trained its personnel in propaganda methods, such as leaflets, radio broadcasts, rumors, and black operations. The Maritime Unit Branch trained its divers and swimmers in underwater demolition, reconnaissance, and sabotage. The Communications Branch trained its operators in radio transmission, reception, coding, and decoding. The specialized courses were held at different locations across the US and abroad, depending on the availability of facilities and instructors.
The third phase was a field exercise that tested the trainees’ abilities to apply their skills and knowledge in realistic scenarios. The exercises were designed to simulate the conditions and challenges that the trainees would face behind enemy lines. The trainees had to complete various missions, such as gathering information, contacting agents, sabotaging targets, evading capture, and escaping from enemy territory. The exercises were often supervised by experienced OSS instructors or operatives who evaluated the trainees’ performance and provided feedback.
The OSS training program was rigorous and demanding, but also innovative and effective. It prepared thousands of men and women for their roles as intelligence officers and covert operatives during World War II. The OSS training program also influenced the development of post-war intelligence and special operations organizations, such as the CIA and U.S. special operations forces (SOF).
Women in the OSS
The role of women in OSS was significant and diverse. Women made up about 35% of the OSS personnel and served in various capacities both at home and abroad. The women of OSS faced many challenges and dangers in their work. They had to overcome sexism, discrimination, suspicion, isolation, betrayal, torture, imprisonment, or death. They also had to balance their personal lives with their professional duties. Many women sacrificed their careers, relationships, health, or happiness for their service. However, they also experienced adventure, excitement, camaraderie, recognition, satisfaction, and pride in their work. The women of OSS made invaluable contributions to the Allied victory and paved the way for future generations of women in intelligence and special operations.
Legacy of the OSS
We have come to the end of an unusual experiment. This experiment was to determine whether a group of Americans constituting a cross-section of racial origins, of abilities, temperaments and talents, could risk an encounter with the long-established and well-trained enemy organizations.” — General William J. Donovan, Director Office of Strategic Services. 1945.
The OSS was dissolved in September 1945, after President Harry Truman signed Executive Order 9621, terminating the OSS. Its legacy lives on in the CIA and the U.S. Army Special Forces. The OSS pioneered new techniques and technologies for intelligence gathering, analysis, and dissemination, laying the foundations for the modern CIA that emerged after the war. The OSS was a remarkable example of American ingenuity, courage, and innovation in a time of global crisis.
Resources
Office of Strategic Services Society
OSSSociety.org
USASOC OSS Website (Official US Army Website)
www.soc.mil/OSS/index.html
International Spy Museum
SpyMuseum.org
Central Intelligence Agency
CIA.gov
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